Action research

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Definition:

Action research cannot be defined by one single tactic or approach. The term was first used by Lewin to describe the simultaneous process of acting and researching , using research as a means to act upon. Carr and Kemmis (Carr & Kemmis 1986, pp. 162) describe action research as a form of self-reflection. They use the following definition:

Action research is simply a form of self-reflective enquiry undertaken by participants in social situations in order to improve the rationality and justice of their own practices, their understanding of these practices, and the situations in which the practices are carried out

Building on this definition it can be said that action research is participatory in nature and is best suited for use in situations where there is some flexibility in the scope of the original research problem/question. In some situations in which action research is utilised there may not even be a problem. Action research can be used to maintain positive standards and promote the continuity of values (Dadich & Fitzgerald 2007, pp. 12). It is a learn-as-you-go progression and one might find that as they progress they may end up redefining the problem based on their experiences.

Even though various participatory research models have been developed in different disciplinary roots and historical traditions, the participatory approaches share an ideological commitment to obtaining and using knowledge to empower oppressed groups. Action researchers are primarily concerned with research that will have implications for public policy, whether addressing specific practical problems or transforming the broader social structure. (Kwok & Ku 2008, pp. 278)

Action research is a systematic approach to investigation that enables people to find effective solutions to problems they confront in their everyday lives. Action research focuses on specific situations and localized solutions.It is usually used to identify issues to do with practice and to improve ones service. The primary purpose of action research is to provide the means for people to engage in systematic inquiry and investigation to ‘design’ an appropriate way of accomplishing a desired goal and to evaluate its effectiveness, usually by a means of qualitative research. Action research is based on the proposition that generalized solutions may not fit particular contexts or groups of people and that the purpose of inquiry is to find an appropriate solution for the particular dynamics at work in a local situation. Action research is a participatory process that involves all those who have a stake in the issue engaging in systematic inquiry to be investigated. Action Research is a means to develop solutions and experimental practices, and then tested to improve the methods. Action research is a collaborative approach to inquiry or investigation that provides people with the means to take systematic action to resolve specific problems. It does not resolve all problems but provides a means for people to get a handle on their situations and formulate effective solutions to problems they face in their public and professional lives (Stringer 1999).

Action research refers to the conjunction of three elements: action, research, and participation. All three of these elements must be present, otherwise it is not classified as action research.

The action research process involves five essential steps or parts:

  1. Ask a question, identify a problem, or define an area of exploration. Determine what it is you want to study.
  2. Decide what data should be collected, how they should be collected, and how often.
  3. Collect and analyse data.
  4. Describe how your findings can be used and applied. You create your plan for action based on your findings.
  5. Report or share your findings and plan for action with others.

These steps do not always proceed in a linear fashion. They are done in a different order depending on who is doing them and the research being conducted (Johnson 2002).

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Processes/Frameworks:

"Look, Think, Act"

  • A basic way of conducting action research is by using the “Look, Think, Act” routine. This is a simple yet powerful framework that enables people to commence their inquiries in a straightforward manner and build greater detail into procedures as the complexity of issues increases. Below are the steps and processes involved in each of the three stages in the "Look, Think, Act" framework:

ActionresearchModel.jpg


LOOK - Gather relevant information (Gather Data) - Build a picture: Describe the situation (Define and Describe)

THINK - Explore and analyse: what is happening here? (Analyse) - Interpret and explain: How/why are things as they are? (Theorise)

ACT - Plan (Report) - Implement - Evaluate

This framework is just one of a number of ways in which action research can be conducted. More examples of Action Research processes can be found here. Most of the time, action research is not a neat, orderly activity that allows participants to proceed step by step to the end of the process. The People involved in the research will find themselves working backward through the routines, repeating processes, revising procedures, rethinking interpretations, leapfrogging steps or stages, and sometimes making radical changes in direction. Due to all the stages and repetition of processes, action research can at times become a complex process.

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History and Development:

Action Research seem to align with two separate traditions, Firstly, the British point of view that sees it as a a means of improvement and advancement of practice. (Carr & Kemmins : 1986). Whereas, in the American tradition,it is aimed at systematic collection of data that provides the basis of social change.(Bogdan & Biklem: 1992)

Research into the history of action research has brought to surface the varied and vast understandings of what it is and how it came about.

The term ‘action research’ is credited to Kurt Lewin, a German-born social psychologist and educator whose work developed the theory and practice of action research throughout the 1940s in the United States, where he was based.














Action research has evolved over the last century and despite a certain ‘vagueness’ about its origins, deep investigation shows “clearly and convincingly that action research is a root derivative of the scientific method.” Following are the several movements which were influential in the development of action research and define its historical, scientific and philosophical foundations.

  1. The Science in Education Movement of the 19th/early 20th century where scientific methodologies were applied to the education system.
  2. Experimentalist and Progressive educational work which involved the application of inductive scientific methods of problem solving as a logic for the solution of problems in such fields as aesthetics, philosophy psychology and education.
  3. The Group Dynamics Movement in Social Psychology and Human Relations Training of the 19th Century, which was used to address social problems of the era through the means of qualitative social enquiry. This particular methodology was utilized again in the 1940s to address problems which spawned from World War II and impacted inter-group relations, racial prejudice and social reconstruction. Kurt Lewin was a notable researcher at this time, it was in this period that he initiated discussion of action research as a "form of experimental inquiry based upon the groups experiencing problems." He argued that “social problems should serve as the locus of social science research." Action research was then used in the study of industry and therefore developed a strong following in the USA at Massachusettes Institute of Technology, as well as the Tavistock Institute in the UK.
  4. Post-war Reconstructionist Curriculum Development Activity. Action research in education was utilised in this era as “a general strategy for designing curricula and attacking complex problems." Research was carried out by outside researchers with the cooperation of teachers and schools.
  5. The Teacher-Researcher Movement that originated in UK through the work of "Stenhouse and the Humanities Curriculum Project." "Stenhouse believed that all teaching should be based upon research, that "research and curriculum development were the preserve of teachers." (the Ford Teaching Project and the Classroom Action Research Network)

Despite the promising outcomes of Lewin's theories, action research was in decline by the end of the 1950s. The method was attacked as being too unscientific, therefore nothing more than "common sense" and simply, the "work of amateurs." This increasing criticism is perhaps attributed to the split between science and practice, which made way for a shift towards "the establishment of expert education research and development laboratories." The separation of theory and practice meant that professional researchers were prevented from contributing to research within education. Due to its descent during this period, action research was forgotten amidst experiments with research designs and quantitative data collection, which became more common research practices.

The 1970s however, saw the re-emergence of action research, as education practitioners began to question the "applicability of scientific research designs and methodologies as a means to solve education issues." People learned to acknowledge the need for teachers and researchers to work together, as well as the benefits of including practitioners within the research process.

Over time, the definition of action research has taken on various meanings and has evolved into a research practice flexible for many situations. It is now commonly recognized as a "tool for professional development," "bringing a greater focus on the teacher than before;" and "increasingly becoming a tool for school reform, as its very individual focus allows for a new engagement in educational change." Like Applied Research, the practice of action research is often used within the academic fields.

“Action research challenges traditional social science, it has moved beyond reflective knowledge created by outside experts sampling variables to an active moment-to-moment theorizing, data collecting, and inquiring occurring in the midst of emergent structure. Knowledge is always gained through action and for action.”


Masters, J. (1995, 2000). "The History of Action Research." http://www2.fhs.usyd.edu.au/arow/arer/003.htm

Ferrance, E. (2000). "Action Research." http://www.alliance.brown.edu/pubs/themes_ed/act_research.pdf

Smith, M. K. (2001). "Kurt Lewin: groups, experiential learning and action research." http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et-lewin.htm

Smith, M. K. (1996; 2001, 2007). "Action Research." http://www.infed.org/research/b-actres.htm

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Application/Uses:

The three seemingly predominate environments in which action research is carried out is within organisations (as an agent for change), transformative social change and in the class room (in a developmental educational capacity).

In an organisational environment, action research may be used on a trial project where all members of a team are required to give feedback on their progress. Action in the form of change is taken as a direct result of this feedback. A clear benefit of this is that it allows for indigenous expertise (Dadich & Fitzgerald 2007, pp. 4). Action research is NOT about new mandates or policies being dictated and implemented from the top down. It is a fully consultative process. By taking a democratic and participatory approach action research realises that in order to find a solution to a problem, researchers must be in close proximity to the problem.

In creating a more just society, research is no longer seen only as a process of creating knowledge; it is simultaneously a process of education, development of consciousness, and of mobilization for action (Park, 1993, 1999; Small, 1995). It begins with people’s problems and then the people themselves engage in the research process to fullest extent possible (Park, 1999). Citizens are full partners in the research process and are usually referred to as co-researchers. Together with the researchers, they engage in the reflection-action-reflection cycle (Gaventa, 1988; Park, 1999; Schruijer, 2006; Small, 1995; Streck, 2007).

In a school setting action research may be undertaken by teachers looking for ways to improve instruction and enhance student achievement (Ferrance 2000, pp. 1). Action research is carried out in the classroom and specifically refers to to disciplined inquiry done by a teacher with the intent that the research will inform and change his or her practice in the future (Ferrance 2000, pp. 2).

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Methodologies:

The people who participate in action research dictate the direction of the research as they progress. This lies in contrast to other forms of research where a lead researcher may control a group. In fact, because action research is a collaborative effort, the researcher is often just as involved in the research as the participants as opposed to being mealy a facilitator. All participants in the research group are equally important as they all bring a unique skill set, knowledge base, or experience to the collaborative research effort. Dadich and Fitzgerald (2007, pp. 4) highlight three important aspects that must be present to undertake action research. These are:

• A participatory character - as mentioned above, all stakeholders are involved in the research process.

• A democratic impulse – no stakeholders are more senior or more important then others.

• A contribution to political and social relations and change – The study climaxes with a transformation or change.


The term action research if often accepted as interchangeable with participatory action research, due to the ‘participatory’ nature for the researchers themselves. However, participatory research is in fact a process which involves action research, according to Hale; “At its most basic level, participatory research is a process that combines the three areas of research, education, and action, all of which are led by the people affected by the issue.”


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Case Studies:

  • Susan K Tiss provides an example of action research here which was geared towards improving collaborations skills where she worked.
  • Michael Prentegast reviews how Action Research processes developed his teaching practices
  • Jackie Kwok & Hok-Bun Ku demonstrates using participatory action research to analyse a social factor of how female Hong Kong migrants adapt to one’s living conditions.
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Applying Action Research to Other Methodologies

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Quantitative Research

Although more commonly associated with qualitative research, the cyclic nature of action research may lend itself to analysis in via quantitative research methods (Dick 2000).

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Qualitative Research

Sverre Gunnersen discusses action research as a form of qualitative research. He considers the action research methodology from an interpretive angle and as such concludess it can only be understood through the meanings that are assigned to it.

Dick (2000) also supports the assertion that action research is qualitative stating, "it deals more often with language than with numbers". On most occasions qualitative reserch is associated with increased responsivenes making it possible to work in natural language and subsequently easier for for informants to becoame involved in the process. Also there is no need to develop a metric which is inline with the flexibile and responsive nature of action research. In many field settings traditional research methods are inappropriate as they are not able to be readily adjusted to the demands of the situation (Dick 2000). Unclear direction and inprecise questions often lead to interpretative answers or a complete redefinition of the original problem (if indeed one exists).

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Applied Research

Some social scientists argue that participatory forms of action research are merely variants of applied research with the only difference being the degree to which participants are included in the research(Herr & Anderson 2004, pp. 2). Action researchers involve their research participants in their studies to a greater extent then what is typical of traditional research (Herr & Anderson 2004, pp. 2). The citizen-participants will ideally ultimately control the entire research process. Professional researchers are at the service of their citizen collaborators.

Participatory action research has been adopted by community workers (e.g. those engaged in services to youth and the elderly, urban regeneration, public health, and nursing) to strengthen and support the ability of communities to grow and change (McTaggart, 1996; Moyer, Coristine, Maclean, & Meyer, 1999; Plummer, 2000; Zuber-Skerritt, 1996). Along with empowerment and ‘capacity building’, participation is regarded by action researchers as essential if an alternative development model is to be sustainable and people-centred (Chambers, 1994; Eade, 1997; Plummer, 2000).

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Pure Research

Pure research is mainly known as basic or fundamental research. It is carried out to increase the understanding of fundamental principles. The end result usually has no direct or immediate commercial benefits and in the long term it is the basis for many commercial products and applied research.

See Pure_research

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Primary Research

Primary research involves the collection of data that does not already exist. It can also be called field research and can be done through forms including telephone interviews and questionnaires. Primary research is predominantly used in market research and is used to collect data for a specific task. It can include personal observation and personal interviews.

Primary research draws some disadvantages to this form of research as it can be very expensive as it is usually done one on one and personally between the interviewer and the respondent. Along with this, by the time the research is complete it may be out of date as it is quite a timely process. Lastly, respondents may not reply to letters/mail questionnaires that are sent out to public.

See Primary_research

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References:

Retrieved from "http://labsome.rmit.edu.au/liki/index.php/Action_research"
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